Introduction

You probably already have a physical routine you use before training and competitions. Maybe you stretch, check your equipment, eat and drink something in particular the morning of a big event. Preparing in this way not only gives you time to do the things you feel are most important to get yourself in the best physical state possible, it also gives you a routine that feels familiar, and can help keep your nerves in check. It is just as important to have a mental plan for competitions, although many athletes neglect this portion of their preparation, often because they don't know what sort of things should go into a mental plan, or how to practice mental skills. A mental plan is a list of mental skills that you can apply in various situations before or during a competition to help you get into or regain the state of mind that will help you perform at your best. Everyone's mental plan will differ, but each one is designed to help athletes get their optimal level of intensity, keep or maintain their focus, mentally rehearse their game plan, work through exertion pain, and stay on track to do their best.

Things to Put in Your Mental Plan

Think about the mental skills that we have discussed, and consider how they might be used at different points before and during your competition. Consider incorporating some of the following:

Goal-Setting – Focus on what you want to accomplish and how you can accomplish it. Avoid "outcome goals" in competitions, that is, goals that focus on what you want the outcome of the event to be.  Rather, think of things you can control and strategies to do them.

Self-Talk – Think about what you can do to recognize negative thoughts that you might have at different points, and what stop signal you can use to stop them. Consider what positive, realistic, instructional, and motivating thoughts can use to replace them with.

Psyching Up Psyching Down Techniques – Consider times when you may feel anxious or tense before or during a competition, and what relaxation techniques would be appropriate at those times. Additionally, think about when you need quick energy, and what psyching up techniques would be helpful to you then.

Imagery – Think how you could use imagery to practice your game strategy before a competition and familiarize yourself mentally with putting your mental plan into practice. Also think about how you could use imagery during a competition to help you stay focused, be confident, or do with exertion pain.

Concentration Techniques – Think about how you can employ the other mental skills listed above to help you stay focused or regain your focus after something unexpected happens. Regaining concentration is particularly important to the refocusing or "oh crap" plan that will be described below.

Types of Mental Plans

Here are four mental plans you can use before and during an event or to help you gett back on track during a competition when things go wrong:

The Normal Plan – Take a few moments and think about what you typically do, both physically and mentally, both for a competition. You might start out by thinking what you do the morning of an event, or even the night before if you have trouble sleeping, for example. Write down everything that you would normally do in order to get yourself in the best physical state and the best frame of mind the night before, the morning of, 30 minutes before, 10 minutes before, and one minute before the event starts. Also think about the times during the event that you believe would be most critical to you; that is, the times that may be toughest. Now write down the mental and physical skills you would use at each of those times to help you compete at your peak. For example, the night before an event may use progressive relaxation to become very physically relaxed and get a good night’s sleep. Thirty minutes before the event you may do various stretches in a certain order, check to make sure you have all your proper equipment, use imagery to rehearse your game plan, and use diaphragmatic breathing and positive self-talk to keep you focused and relaxed.

The Short Plan – This is a variation on The Normal Plan. After creating your Normal Plan, consider the physical and mental skills that are most important for you to do and that can be done quickly. For example, select the stretches and mental skills that would be most helpful to do quickly to get you in the proper state in, say, five minutes. Use this Short Plan when you have a limited time to prepare before an event, like when you arrive late.

The Long Plan – This is another variation on The Normal Plan, but this one helps you decide what mental and physical skills to use when you need to take much longer than you thought to prepare for an event, like when you arrive very early or an event is delayed. Consider what physical and mental skills you would add to The Normal Plan to keep yourself relaxed and sharp.

The "Oh Crap" Plan – Athletes frequently rehearse the way they want things to go in a competition, but almost inevitably something unexpected happens. When the unexpected happens it is very easy to become distracted and have trouble getting refocused on to what needs to be done. Therefore, I recommend that athletes think about what mental and physical skills they would want to use after something goes wrong (that is, when during a competition you find yourself saying, "Oh crap!"). For example, imagine that you are a cyclist or a triathlete and get a flat tire during a race. When you hear yourself say, "Oh crap!" it will be a reminder to initiate this plan, which could include such things as using thought stopping and self-talk to give you instructions about what you need to do, breathing techniques to keep you from becoming too nervous, and imagery or cue words and phrases to keep you focused.

Practice Makes Perfect

For these plans to work, you must practice them – a lot. Practice them every time you train and modify them to better suit your needs. Once these plans become automatic begin using them in competitions to help you perform at your peak.

The ability to maintain concentration during the pressure of competition and to regain concentration after unexpected situations is key to optimum performance.  Many research studies have verified that concentration skills are important to peak athletic performance.  Time and again this research has indicated that the ideal mental state associated with peak performance includes the feeling of being totally absorbed and focused on the activity at hand (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Krane & Williams, 2006).

What is Concentration?

Concentration or attention (I use the words concentration and attention synonymously) can be thought of as having four different parts – selective attention, maintaining focus, situational awareness, and the capacity to shift attention will focus (Weinberg & Gould, 2007).  It is also helpful to think of attention as the beam from a flashlight.  The bean can be narrow or broad, it can be pointed in any direction, but it can only supply so much light at a time.

Selective attention is like pointing a narrow beam from your flashlight in the right direction.  It refers to paying attention to the most important things in your environment while screening out the distractions.  For example, you use selective attention when you have a conversation with one person at a party.  You focus on what this single person is saying while screening out all the other conversations around you.  If you have problems with selective attention, you might miss an important detail in a competition because you are thinking about something irrelevant.

Maintaining focus is like holding your flashlight on the right thing for an extended period of time.  It refers to how well someone can concentrate on a single thought over time.  Research has shown that the median length of time during which the content of one’s thoughts remain on target is about five seconds (Weinberg & Gould, 2007).  It’s not hard to see why it would be difficult to maintain focus during an entire competition.

Situational awareness is like shining a broad beam from your flashlight all around you to help you decide what direction to go.  It refers to the ability to size up the situation and make appropriate decisions.  For instance, in a race this could mean attending to what other competitors are doing, how they seem to be feeling, and using this information tactically in your race. For instance, you might survey the pack and decide that this is a time to attack.

Shifting attention is like pointing your flashlight at a moving target.  It refers to altering both the width and direction of attention over time.  This is very important in many sports, as the attentional demands change over time.  Continuing to use a race as an example, at some points it is important to focus on a single person in front of you to anticipate an attack, while at other times it is important to take a broad survey of the entire field.  Similarly, at some points it’s important to focus on something specific inside yourself, like your heart rate or how your legs are feeling.  At other times it’s important to attend to the full range of your experiences and memories of similar races to determine what the best move will be now.

Four Types of Concentration

Psychologist Robert Nideffer proposed a useful model of concentration.  He suggested that concentration has two dimensions: width and direction.   Attentional width can be broad or narrow and attentional direction can be internal or external.  Therefore, this model proposes for different kinds of attention:

Broad-external attention, like when you are surveying the entire field in a race.  This type of attention is good for assessing the total environment.  When used inappropriately, it can lead you to miss things because you’re being distracted or paying attention to something that’s irrelevant.

Broad-internal attention, like when you are comparing the current situation to similar ones in your memory.  This type of attention is good for developing a game plan or strategy.  When used inappropriately, it can lead you to think too much, causing “paralysis by analysis.”

Narrow-external attention, like when you are focused on a single person or object that is of immediate importance, like a batter watching a pitch or a cyclist watching another rider about to launch an attack.  This type of attention is good for focusing on a single, primary target and blocking out distractions.  When used inappropriately, they can lead you to be so focused on one thing that you miss something else that’s important.

Narrow-internal attention, like when you are focusing on your heart rate.  This type of attention is good for focusing your thoughts on several mental skills, such as body awareness, energy management, or imagery.  When used inappropriately, you can become so distracted by your own thoughts that you “choke.”

Assessing the Situation

Different sports demand different kinds of attention at different times.  To help you determine the attentional demands of your sport, think about different critical situations you encounter and the type of attention they require.  It will help to make a list and place each situation within the 2 X 2 table of Nideffer’s model of attention.  In cycling, for instance, narrow-internal attention may be used before a race to help you visualize the race or to regulate your anxiety.  Broad external attention may be required while you are going through a technical section of a race in a pack.  You may use narrow external attention to assess whether a rider is about to attack.  Finally, you may use broad internal attention to compare the current race situation to all the other races you’ve been in to help you determine what to do next. In addition, attentional demands may differ between training and competition.  For instance, when you are learning a new skill in training, it is often important to use narrow internal attention to focus on what your body is doing.  In a competition, however, these skills should have become automatic, and thinking about them too much can deter performance (it’s as if your flashlight hasn’t got enough power to light up everything you want it to).  In a competition, therefore, it may be better to focus on the external consequences of these skills (such as how you’re increased pedaling efficiency is helping you catch the rider in front of you).

Assessing Yourself

In addition to determining the attentional demands of your sport, it is also important to assess your own attentional strengths and weaknesses.  One way to do this is to consider the critical situations you listed above, and think about which situations are most problematic for you.  It may be, for example, that part of the reason you tend to get dropped in the middle of the race is because your attention is not focused on the external events, but rather on the internal events, such as how badly you’re hurting right now. Assessing your concentration strengths and weaknesses can help you determine what kind of exercises to employ to help you when you need it the most.  When assessing your concentration, consider these common sources of distraction:

Ruminating over past mistakes rather than focusing on the present.

Worrying about what might happen in the future.

Over-analyzing body mechanics or technique during a competition.

Letting your mind wander because you are bored and unmotivated.

Focusing on how much you hurt rather than what you have to do next.

Paying attention to the spectators.

Getting distracted by cheers, boos, or other noises.

Leading another competitor “get inside your head.”

By the way, you might have noticed that these sources of distraction can either be internal or external.  Another way to help you assess your concentration strengths and weaknesses is to take the following test.  Rate the following questions on a scale of  0=Never, 1=Sometimes, 2=Almost Always (taken from USOC, 2002):

_____   I often use cue words and triggers to keep me focused on my performance.

_____   I know what I need to do to get in the right frame of mind to compete.

_____   I can jump from one spot to another or one task to another without losing my train of thought.

_____   If a competition or practice goes into overtime, my levels of intensity and concentration remain constant.

_____   I am very good at anticipating and responding to an opponent’s actions.

_____   I can put aside non-sport related thoughts while training and competing.

_____   There are times when I get so absorbed in what I am doing that I don’t notice what else is going on around me.

_____   During breaks in play I can relax and recover, but when I am competing I am completely “in the moment.”

_____   I do not get flustered or confused when a lot of different things are going on at once, like several people speaking at the same time, or when I need to make a turn at a busy congested intersection.

Scoring:  12-18 excellent, 6-11 good, 0-5 need improvement.

Improving Your Concentration

There are many exercises that will help you improve your ability to concentrate.  I’ve categorized several exercises below.  Before getting to them, however, it’s important to point out that several of the mental skills – like setting process and performance goals, regulating your anxiety and using imagery – can help you maintain your concentration, shift attention appropriately, and refocus attention after you become distracted.  Before moving on to these other exercises, consider how you can use the skills you already have to improve your concentration.

Exercises to Improve Your Ability to Maintain Attention

One pointing.  Find a quiet place and choose an object from your sport to focus on.  For example, you might consider using your bike or running shoes as the object.  Touch the object and feel its texture.  Examine its color, shape, form, and other distinguishing characteristics.  Now look at the object without touching it and focus your attention on it as fully as possible.  If your thoughts wander, gently bring your attention back to the object.  Try to keep your attention fully focused for five minutes.  If you can’t (and you probably won’t be able to at first), start practicing with distractions present, such as having the television or radio on.  This will not only help train your concentration, but will also provide you with a lot of visual information that you can use to get a more vivid mental pictures when you do imagery training.

Slow Performing.  If aspects of your sport can be done in slow motion, like running or cycling, try to perform the action as slowly as you can while paying attention to all the details in the movements.  For instance, if you cycle, put your bike on a trainer.  After a brief warm up, shift your bike into the highest gear.  Now take an entire minute to turn your pedals one revolution.  Do this with your eyes closed and closely attend to how your body feels.  Pay attention to all the physical sensations throughout your body.  You may also wish to try this outside, while having one or two people hold your bike up straight.  This exercise will improve your ability to focus on how your body moves while on your bike.

Mindfulness.  Close your eyes, take a deep breath, and relax.  Focus your attention on one word related to your sport.  Repeat it over and over again, and try to keep your mind focused on that one word only.  If distracting thoughts come into your head, just let them float out again, and redirect your mind to your word.  Once you are able to do this for five minutes, start practicing with distractions present, such as having a television or radio on.

Grid exercise.  Take a 10 by 10 block grid and randomly placed the numbers 00 through 99 in each block.  While timing one minute, find and put a slash through as many numbers as possible, in sequence, starting with 00.  You can decrease the practice effect by starting at different numbers, doing only odd or even numbers, or going backwards from 99 to 00.  Athletes who excel in focusing their attention can score in the upper 20s to low 30s within one minute.  The average person does about half that many.  After you get better at this, try practicing with distractions such as loud noises or distracting friend.

Exercises to Improve Your Ability to Shift Attention

You can learn to shift attention by practicing the following exercises (Gauron, 1984 as described in Wilson, Peper, & Schmid, 2006).  These exercises can be done altogether, or done singly as separate exercises.  Before beginning the exercises, sit or lie comfortably, and take a few breaths to relax.

Concentrate on what you hear. Pay attention to what you hear.  Identify each sound separately and label it.  Next, broaden your focus and simultaneously listen to all the sounds together without labeling them.

Concentrate on your body. Pay attention to your bodily sensations, such as the way you feel against the chair.  Label each sensation as you notice it.  Next, try to experience all the physical sensations together without labeling any particular one.

Concentrate on your mind. Pay attention to your thoughts and feelings.  Let each thought and feeling appear by itself.  Next try to empty your mind, let go of your thoughts and feelings, and relax.

Assisted Zooming. Cut a 3” x 5” hole in a piece of paper and hold it at arm’s length in front of you to focus on a single object in the distance.  Gradually moved the paper closer to you while taking in as much in this expanded frame of reference as you can.  Practice moving the paper back and forth to shift your attention from broad to narrow.

Unassisted Zooming. Open your eyes and take an object across the room in front of you.  While looking ahead, try to take in as many objects in your peripheral vision as you can.  Now narrow your attention to this single object in front of you.  Expand your attention gradually, as if you were zooming out a telephoto lens.  Practice zooming in and out, narrowing and broadening your attention.

Shifting during Training.  Try shifting from one thing to another during training.  For example, if you cycle, get on your trainer and ride outside on a breezy day.  Focus your attention on a single object in front of you, while simultaneously paying attention to anything that moves in your visual field.  Anytime you see movement, such as a leaf blowing on a tree, a bird flying, or a car passing by in the street, shift your attention to that object, hold it there for several seconds, and then re-focus on your original object.

Exercises to Improve Your Specific Attentional Skills

Improving Broad-External Attention. To improve your broad-external attention, try watching a video of your sport.  Have a friend select clips of important parts that you have never seen before.  Without telling you in advance, have the friend pause the video and tell you to shut your eyes.  Without opening them, described in as much detail as possible what is happening and what you should be paying attention to.

Improving Narrow-External Attention. To improve your narrow-external attention, try practicing your sport or do some training (like running) and focus on one object in the distance.  Concentrate on this object only, as if you were zooming into it with a telephoto lens.

Improving Broad-Internal Attention. To improve your broad-internal attention, try doing some training activity, like riding your bike on a trainer, while simultaneously paying attention to every bodily sensation, thought, and feeling.  Try to be as open and aware as possible.

Improving Narrow-Internal Attention. To improve narrow-internal attention, try doing some training activity, like riding your bike on a trainer, and during a hard effort focus on one physical sensation, such as your breathing or heart rate.  Try to hold your focus to this single sensation.

In all of the exercises listed above, start performing them in an ideal environment, free of distractions.  Once you become proficient, find ways to introduce distractions to make it more difficult. 

Exercises to Improve Your Ability to Deal with Distractions

Simulations. To keep from being distracted by external stimuli, try practicing in any environment that is as close to the competition environment as possible.  If you decrease the novelty of the competition environment, it will be less distracting to you. Making practices resemble competitions can also help you cope with internal distractions, like competitive anxiety.  Simulated competitions also involve practicing under all conceivable conditions that simulate a competition.  For instance, if you are a runner, doing a hard group run in all sorts of weather conditions, on the course in which the race will take place, or while doing things that simulate unexpected crowd reactions or crowd noise can help acclimate you to these external distractions.

Dress rehearsals. Training in your uniform can help reduce the number of visual distractions in a race, because you become accustomed to both the look and feel of what you will be wearing, as well as the look of what others wear better race.

Mental Planning and Preparation. To keep yourself from being distracted after a mistake, immediately mentally rehearse what you should have done, and avoid judging or blaming yourself.  Keep focusing on what you can do right the next time.  Develop several scenarios about what could go wrong and then mentally rehearse what you would want to do to get back on track.  Having a refocusing plan can also be very helpful in getting you back on track when things go wrong.

Imagery is usually thought of as having a picture in your head of something that you’ve done or are thinking about doing. For the last 15 to 20 years, imagery has been accepted by elite athletes across sport disciplines to be an integral part of their mental skills training.  In a 1990 study, 90% of U.S. Olympic Athletes reported that they used imagery and 97% of these athletes felt that it helped their performance.  In a 1988 study, 99% of Canadian Olympians reported that they used imagery.

How Imagery Works

When we build a house we first create a blueprint to help us organize and execute the actual process of building.  Similarly, imagery helps us by creating a “mental blueprint” in our minds that helps us understand the organization and execution of a sports skill.  In addition studies have shown that athletes who image a sport skill actually innervate the muscles used in that skill, though to a much lesser degree than in their physical performance.  For example, a study done on a downhill skier showed that while imaging a race their nerves in their leg muscles fired in the same way they would during the race.  This firing even became stronger at points in the imagined race where the terrain was most difficult.  Therefore, imagery also seems to work by improving “muscle memory.”

Is Imagery Effective?

Many people are fascinated my imagery, but because it seems mysterious, it can strike some people as just being a lot of hocus-pocus.  This is not the case, however.  The results of many research studies have confirmed that imagery is effective in many areas of sport performance.  It is not a substitute for physical practice, but when used along with physical practice it can enhance performance more than the physical practice alone.  Think of imagery as a “vitamin supplement” to physical practice.

For What Purposes do Athletes Use Imagery?

Many people are familiar with how athletes have used imagery to improve a specific sport skill.  This is called mental practice.  Imagery can be used for a variety of other purposes, however, including

Mental preparation for competition (mental rehearsal)

Finding and correcting mistakes in technique

Rehearsing competition strategies

Increasing self-confidence

Improving motivation

Focusing attention

Regulating anxiety

Coping with and recovery from injuries

How to Make Your Imagery More Effective

The more vivid your imagery is, the more effective it will be.  Although many people use the term “visualization” to describe imagery, imagery is most effective when all the senses are used.  Incorporating the visual, auditory, taste, smell, and feeling of movement to an image can make imaging more effective because it make it more vivid.  For increased sport performance the visual and kinesthetic (sense of muscle movements) senses seem particularly important. 

Another factor affecting the effectiveness of imagery is controllability.  This refers to the ability to make an image to what you want it to do.  The more control you have over an image, the more effective the imagery will be.

A third factor affecting the effectiveness of imagery is your ability to experience the thoughts and feelings you are having in your image.  For example, if you imagine your best sport performance ever, you probably will feel some of the pride, elation and joy you experienced at the time as well as some of the thoughts you were experiencing.  Imaging your thoughts and feelings as clearly as possible while you image is important; you should strive to get the best idea possible of how both your body and your head are responding to what you are imaging.  The more you can be aware of what you are thinking, what you are feeling, and how your body is feeling in the image, the more effective that imagery will be.

Another factor in imaging is perspective.  Some people tend to have imagery from an internal perspective, that is, as if you were seeing it through your own eyes.  Other people tend to have an external perspective, that is, they tend to image themselves as if they were watching themselves on television.  Most sport psychology consultants agree that it can be useful to gain experience in doing imagery from both perspectives, although getting a vivid and controllable image is more important than the perspective.

Assessing Your Imagery Strengths and Weaknesses

Everyone has the ability to use imagery, but we all have different skill levels and different areas of strengths and weakness, just like with physical skills.  Additionally, just like with physical skills, your imaging ability will improve with practice.  The first step in creating an imagery program that will be best suited for you is to determine your imaging abilities.  A simple way to do this is to imagine something in your sport that you are familiar with, like the place you work out.  Take a deep breath, exhale and relax, close your eyes, and imagine this scene as clearly as possible.  Try to see all the sights, hear all the sounds, and feel what it’s like to do your workout routine.  Notice how you are feeling and what your thoughts are like.  Take about 3 to 5 minutes to perform a couple different activities, then open your eyes and answer the following questions:

How clearly could you see the image? 

How clearly could you hear the sounds? 

How clearly could you feel your muscles move as you performed your workout? 

How clearly did you experience your thoughts and feelings? 

How well were you able to control the imagery?

You can get a more accurate assessment of your imagery strengths and weaknesses by repeating the exercise with other scenes and see if you consistently have an easier time experiencing your images with one sense versus another and how well you can control your images.  For an even more thorough assessment, use a structured imagery rating scale, like the “Sport Imagery Evaluation.”

Exercises to Improve Vividness

Everyone can benefit from exercises designed to improve the vividness and controllability of their imagery as well as to increase their awareness of what they are thinking and feeling in their images.  The following exercises will prepare you to image more vividly and with more control.  They are not actually imagery exercises, but they will give you the raw materials that will help you image more vividly and with more control.  I will give examples of how a cyclist might use these exercises, but they work equally well for athletes of any sport.

Looking at an object from your sport.  Take a few minutes to look at something from your sport, like your bike, your running shoes, or a football.  Look at it as closely as you can.  See all the details you can see.  For instance, if you are looking at your bike as you prepare to go for a ride, fill up the tires and look at the rim, the spokes, the cassette, chain, seat and chain stays, and the fork.  What do you notice?  Is there a particular smell you can sense from this perspective?  Examine each detail as closely as possible.  Next look your bike from the side.  Notice the angles in the frame, how the saddle looks, the shine or dirt you see.  Take your hand and run it over various parts of the bike.  Notice how they feel.  Next sit on your bike and look at it from this perspective.  Notice how the front wheel looks from here.  Observe the wrap of your handle bar tape, how it feels in your hands.  How do you feel in the saddle?  When you put your hands in the drops?  By visually examining an object from your sport you will be exercising that part of your mind that is used when creating vivid images.  You will also build up a storehouse of memories of the objects used in your sport, so that when you use imagery to enhance your performance, you will be able to incorporate that portion of your imagery into your practice as vividly as possible.

The vivid workout.  Now do a practice or training for your sport while simultaneously taking in all the images of what’s around you.  Again, using a cyclist as an example, ride your bike and listen to the sound it makes as you turn the cranks.  Is it steady or does the sound subtly change each time you are at the top of your stroke?  What do you see around you?  How does the wind sound in your ears?  Where is the sun?  How does it feel on your face?  Are there birds singing?  Can you hear a car coming from behind you?  How does the sound change as it goes by?  Now shift back and forth from your big ring to your small ring.  What does that sound like?  What sensations do you notice in your legs and feet as you shift?  Now do the same thing while shifting to different gears on your cassette.  Notice how this sounds and feels.  Finally, notice with all your senses the differences between spinning in your warm up, hammering in an interval, climbing a steep grade, and cooling down.  Whatever your workout, try to examine all the details through every sensory modality as vividly as possible.

Training with others.  During your next training session with your training partner or team, use the ideas described in the previous two exercises and apply them to this group situation.  Notice the sights, the sounds, the feelings of your muscles and your thoughts and feelings.  Pay attention to the others around you.  For example, if you are a cyclist, notice what it’s like to have someone pass you or to pass someone else, what you see while riding in a paceline.  If you train for a long time and have to refuel, pay attention to the smell and taste and texture of what you eat and drink.

Imagining Your Images.  After completing any of the exercises described above you will have a more vivid image of things related to your sport.  Now it’s time to put these now images into practice.  Take 3 to 5 minutes and close your eyes and relive these experiences in your imagination.  Doing these while you stretch after training or practice can be a great way to begin incorporating imagery into your physical practice.  As described above, use all your senses to relive what the exercise was like – what you saw, heard, felt, tasted, and smelled.

All of these exercises have to do with making a conscious effort to become more aware of yourself and your environment.  You can do this anytime, not just when you are training.  In fact, your imagery ability will increase if you become more aware of what’s around you and inside you at any time – while eating meals, while driving to work, etc.  As a bonus, you may also get to enjoy some pleasant discoveries along the way.

Exercises to Improve Controllability

After completing the exercises described above, take 3 to 5 minutes and close your eyes and relive these experiences in your imagination.  Again, doing these while you stretch after a workout can be a great way to begin incorporating imagery into your physical practice.  While you imagine what actually happened during these experiences, take an extra step and imagine changing the image to be something that didn’t happen during the actual experience.  Here are some examples in cycling, but you can easily think of similar things to control and change in your particular sport:

If you had any trouble performing a particular skill during your practice, imagine yourself going correcting that skill.  For instance if you’re a cyclist and wanted to maintain a higher cadence during your ride, imaging steadily increasing your cadence from 80rpm’s to 90 to 100rpm’s smoothly.  Feel yourself sitting steadily on the saddle as your legs spin.

After a group workout, try changing the image to a competition.  For instance, if you are a cyclist, imagine your group training ride and change it into a race.  See yourself competing successfully against others, making your way through the pack, and sprinting confidently to the finish.

Try imaging yourself in a competition and making a mistake.  This may be more difficult, as we tend to resist imaging negative things.  Imagine how you might respond to the mistake – how it feels, what you do, what you say to yourself.  Now imagine yourself successfully coping with the mistake and getting back on track.  Again, imagine what you would say to yourself, how you would refocus, leave the mistake behind you and how you would finish the competition strong.

Designing Your Imagery Program

Imagery can be used to achieve several goals, so it’s easy to try to do too much at once.  The best way to decide how to use imagery is to go back to the goals.  For instance, if your goal is to become less anxious before a competition, you might use imagery to prepare for a competition, imagining using some skills to successfully control anxiety.  You could also practice imagining a peaceful scene before your competition.  Begin practicing imagery in an environment without distractions.  Sit in a comfortable chair, close your eyes and practice a relaxation technique before beginning (this can be a short technique, such as taking a deep breath).  Try to practicing several times a day for 3 to 5 minutes each.  When you feel that you have been successful in getting vivid and controllable images consistently, try performing the exercises with your eyes open.  Next, try practicing during commercials while you watch television or during a conversation at a party when someone is boring you (just don’t get caught!).  You will soon be able to use imagery during practices and training.  After the imagery has become second nature, you can use it in competitions.  Although some people think that it’s a pain, keeping a brief log about your imagery experiences can be tremendously helpful and save time in the long run by helping you target ways to improve the effectiveness of your imagery.  Consider using the “Imagery Rating Scales” of the Two-Minute Journal or jotting down some notes about what you did, how it went, and how vivid and controllable the imagery was, along with any problems or comments you have.

Creating an Imagery Script

The best way to practice imagery is to have a detailed script that describes what you want to image.  Think about what you want to accomplish with your imagery and how the scenes would unfold in your mind.  Remember to incorporate as much detail as possible, using all your senses and your thoughts and feelings.  Keep your script to about 5 minutes and include:

Your surroundings:  Where you are, what it looks like, what it sounds like, what it smells like.

What your body feels like:  Notice how your muscles move, how they feel, the sensations of the sun and the wind, the places your body makes contact with other objects. 

Your thoughts and feelings:  Write down how you feel emotionally, what you say to yourself, and you changing reactions as the imagery progresses.

What you want to accomplish:  Write down exactly how you will perform successfully.  Be realistic, but make the imagery end with success.  For example, if you use imagery to deal with exertion pain, imagine feeling fatigued towards the end of a competition.  Imagine your muscles hurting, feeling hot, breathing hard, and thinking that you can’t go on.  Then imagine how you would successfully cope with this situation, perhaps by using thought stopping and thought replacement or psyching up strategies.  End the imagery with the feelings of pride and exhilaration of successfully achieving your goal.

Sometimes we don’t have enough intensity during training or a competition – like when we begin to get tired in the middle of a long race or during long training rides.  Other times we have too much intensity – like when we feel tense or worried before an important race.  When we have too little intensity we can feel bored, our mind wanders, and our motivation diminishes.  It also affects us physically – we may become too relaxed and loose power and efficiency.  When we have too much intensity we can feel anxious and worried, we might become so preoccupied with our performance that we miss important things happening around us.  It also affects us physically – we may become tense and stiff, which also leads to decreased physical performance.  This highlights the importance of becoming more aware of your mental state in general and level or intensity in particular.  The good news is people can learn how to manage their level of intensity and thereby change it to more closely approximate the ratings you made about your best performance.

The Intensity-Performance Relationship

So, just how intense should you be for optimal sport performance?  That depends on many factors, including the nature of the sport (e.g., football players require great amounts intensity in shorts bursts; marathon runners need to manage their energy over a much longer time) and the nature of the individual (e.g., some people function best when they’re really revved up; others need to be more relaxed).  In general, however, everyone has a middle range of intensity in which they function best.  You may have heard of the “inverted-U” curve that depicts the relationship between intensity level and performance.  This curve looks something like the infamous “bell curve” some of our teachers used to grade us in school.  In this case, however, the curve shows that performance is at its peak when it’s neither very high nor very low; somewhere in the middle you’ll find your peak performance state.

This intensity-performance relationship has been demonstrated in many research studies for decades, and shows the importance of regulating intensity for peak performance.  There are still two problems with this relationship, however:  Everyone’s “optimal intensity” is not the same.  You can see this for yourself before a race.  Some people prefer to get “pumped up” while others prefer to be quiet and alone.  Secondly, a person’s “optimal intensity” depends on the situation.  For instance, what do you think your optimal intensity would be at the very start of a 100-mile race compared to the end when you are anticipating a sprint to the finish?

Today we often think about optimal intensity, not as a single value, but as an individually determined range in which each person performs their best.  This range can differ from person to person and from situation to situation.  This is one dimension of the “zone” that has been called a person’s “IZOF,” that is, their Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning.  How do you find your optimal level of arousal?  The best way is by keeping a sport journal.  While using a journal is best, you probably already have an intuitive sense of when your intensity needs to be increased or decreased, at least in some situations.

Intensity Regulation Techniques

There are many ways to regulate intensity, but I believe that it is useful to have at least two techniques that are designed to increase it and two that are designed to decrease it.  That way, when you need to use them when it counts most (i.e., in a competition), you have a second one to fall back on if the first one fails. 

Also keep in mind that the anxiety that people can experience when they get too intense can come in “different flavors.”  Although an in-depth discussion of this is beyond the scope of this handout, know that sometimes people feel more worried, ruminative, and get nervous about what might go wrong.  This kind of worry that goes on in one’s mind is called “cognitive anxiety.”  On the other hand, sometimes people feel more uptight, physically tense, and get headaches or a nervous stomach.  This kind of tension that shows up in one’s body is called “somatic anxiety.”  As you’ll be able to see in the next section, some of the techniques will focus more on cognitive components, others will focus more on somatic components.  Keep in mind, however, that your mind is not entirely separate from your body, so it would be difficult, for example, for a worried mind to exist in a tense body.

Learning Techniques to Decrease Intensity:  Breathing Exercises

When we get tense we often change our breathing pattern.  Frequently we either hold our breath or have rapid, shallow breathing from the chest.  To feel what this is like, shrug your shoulders and notice how your breathing changes.  You inhale from the upper chest and your breathing becomes more rapid and shallow.  You can, however, easily learn how to breathe to promote relaxation by taking a deep breath that starts at the diaphragm.  This technique is called diaphragmatic breathing.  Here’s how to do it:

Think of your lungs being divided into three parts.  First, inhale through your nose and fill up the bottom part of your lungs by pushing the diaphragm down and pushing the stomach out.  Next, fill the middle portion of the lungs by expanding the chest and raising the rib cage.  Lastly, fill the top part of the lungs by slightly raising the chest and shoulders.

Hold this breath for several seconds, and then slowly exhale through the mouth, emptying the lungs from the top down while feeling the tension leave your body along with the expelled air.

To confirm that you are taking a diaphragmatic breath, put one hand on your stomach and the other on your chest.  As you take another deep breath the hand on your stomach should move out while you inhale and in when you exhale while the hand on your chest should move very little.

Although breathing is second nature, this type of breathing to relax will take some practice.  Aim to practice taking this kind of breath about 30 to 40 times each day for a week to learn it before incorporating it into your practices.  It may help you remember if you pair this breathing with other frequently occurring things in your day, like looking at your watch.

A variation on this kind of breathing is called 1:2 breathing.  You inhale as deeply as you can while counting to 4, then exhale while counting to 8.  This 1:2 ratio slows down your exhalation and promotes even greater relaxation.

Learning Techniques to Decrease Intensity:  Progressive Relaxation

In many sports it’s important to conserve all the physical energy possible until you really need it.  In addition, for peak performance, one frequently has to learn to how to use some muscles hard while keeping other parts of the body as relaxed as possible (e.g., like cyclists keeping their shoulders and neck loose while using their legs).  This “differential relaxation” can be improved through increasing your awareness of what various parts of your body feel like when they are tense or relaxed.

Progressive Relaxation (PR) is a technique in which muscle groups are alternatively tensed then relaxed and leads to a relaxed mind and body as well as the ability to recognize and release unwanted tension in different parts of the body.  It is a good technique to use for overall body relaxation or for differential relaxation.  You would not want to use it, however, just before a competition, as you would not want to feel lethargic.

At first PR training takes some time – you need to practice the 25-30 minute procedure every day for at least a week or two before moving on to the next phase.  The payoff, however, is that you can learn to speed up this process so that you can relax your body very quickly.  With some of the newer variations of PR (e.g., Ost, 1988), it is possible to teach people to relax within 20 to 30 seconds.

When practicing PR, schedule the time at least one hour after eating, as the digestive process can inhibit the process.  Muscle twitches sometimes occur during PR.   This is normal as sometimes the flexor muscles relax before the extensors.  Practice PR in a quite room, free of distractions.  Sit down in a comfortable chair with head support or lay down.  You should sit up if you find that laying down causes you to fall asleep.  Place a pillow or towel under your knees or neck if you are lying down, if this increases your comfort.  Keep your legs and arms uncrossed.  Wear loosely fitting clothing.  Remove hard contacts.

Progressive Relaxation Script

Here is a progressive relaxation script that you can refer to or record and play back to help you go through the procedure:

Sit or lie down in a comfortable position and try to put yourself in a relaxed state. Allow your eyes to close lightly and comfortably.  Become aware of how your body feels as you sit or lie down.  Notice where your body makes contact with the chair, bed, or floor.  Notice how your clothes feel against your skin.  Notice the sensations in your muscles, along your skin, in your stomach, and in your lungs as you slowly and easily breathe in and out. 

Now take a long, slow, deep breath through your nose, inhaling as much air is you can. Fill your stomach up first, then your chest, then the top of your lungs.  Now exhale from the top down, slowly and completely releasing the breath from the top of your lungs, then your chest, and finally your stomach.  Feel the tension leaving your body as you exhale, like fog lifting from a meadow on a spring morning.

Now take another deep breath, filling your lungs up from the bottom to the top.  Feel your stomach expand first, then the middle of your chest, and finally the top of your chest.  Now exhale from the top of your lungs down, letting the air out from the top of your lungs, then your chest, and finally from your stomach.  Let all the tension and worry out with the air you exhale. Now continue to breathe easily and normally, letting yourself relax even further.  Feel the rhythm of your breathing, like ocean waves breaking on the shore.  Feeling more and more deeply relaxed with every breath you take.  

Just continue to relax, deeper and deeper, as you listen to what I say. Remember, you don’t need to try to relax; just let the relaxation happen. As we progress, try not to move any more than necessary to stay comfortable, and especially try not to move the muscles that you’ve already relaxed.

As we go through each of the muscle groups, you will first tense the muscles for about 5 seconds and then relax for about 20. Then you will repeat the tension and relaxation a second time.  Don’t start tensing until I say the word "NOW." Continue to tense the muscles until I say the word "OKAY." When I say, “OKAY” immediately let go of all the tension in the muscles and enjoy the peaceful feeling of relaxation that you’ll find spreading into that part of your body.

Right Hand and Lower Arm

We’ll begin with tensing the muscles in your right hand and lower arm by making a tight fist and bending your hand back at the wrist.  Begin tensing those muscles NOW. Feel the tension in the hand and up to the lower arm [pause for 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Simply let go of the tension and feel those muscles become loose, comfortable and relaxed. Notice and enjoy the difference between tension and the relaxation [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Make another fist with your right hand NOW [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Just let the relaxation happen by stopping the contraction; don't put out any effort into it.  Feel the relaxation gently spreading into your right hand and lower arm, leaving those muscles loose, comfortable, and relaxed [pause 25 to 30 seconds].

Right Upper Arm

Next tense the muscles of your right upper arm by pushing your elbow down against the floor or back of the chair. Start tensing your right arm NOW. Feel the tension in the biceps and triceps without involving the muscles in the lower arm and hand [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, release the tension all at once. Just let it happen. Let all the tension go and begin to feel the relaxation spread into your upper arm [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Now do this again, tense the muscles of your right upper arm by pushing your elbow down against the floor or back of the chair NOW [Pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, release it. Notice the contrast between the tension and the relaxation. Relaxation is no more than the absence of tension.  Enjoy the comfortable, calm feeling of relaxation throughout your entire right arm [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Left Hand and Lower Arm

This time we will work on the muscles of your left hand and lower arm. Take your left hand and make a tight fist and bend your wrist back NOW. Feel the tension in your left hand and lower arm, but keep the upper arm relaxed [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Just let all the tension drain out.  Let those muscles become more and more deeply relaxed [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Now tense your left hand again by making a tight fist and bending your wrist back NOW. Notice the sensation of tension [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Enjoy the feeling between the tension and the relaxation that is now comfortably spreading through your left hand and lower arm [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Left Upper Arm

Next, I want you to tighten the upper arm muscles of your left arm by pushing your left elbow down. Begin tensing the muscles NOW.  Keep your hand and lower arm relaxed [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Let all the tension go [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Let's tense the muscles in your left upper arm again. Push down the elbow of your left arm NOW. Feel the tension and discomfort [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Just let all the tension dissolve away. Enjoy the pleasant feelings of relaxation. Notice the calm, comfortable sensations you now have in the muscles of both arms and hands. Perhaps there is a sort of flow of relaxation, a feeling of warmth or even heaviness in the muscles. Notice and enjoy this feeling of relaxation, letting yourself continue to relax deeper and deeper, becoming more and more relaxed [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Forehead

Next, I want you to turn your attention to the muscles in your face. Tense the muscles in your forehead by raising your eyebrows and wrinkling your forehead.  Begin tensing these muscles NOW. Feel the tension in your forehead and scalp [pause for only 3 to 5 second for contractions with these smaller muscle groups]. OKAY, relax and smooth those muscles out. Enjoy the spreading sensation of relaxation across your forehead [pause for 20 to 30 seconds].

Tense those muscles in your forehead by raising your eyebrows again NOW [pause 3 to 5 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Allow your forehead to become smooth again. Let your forehead become as smooth as glass.  Feel the pleasant sensation of relaxation spreading across your forehead [pause for 20 to 30 seconds].

Eyes, Lips, Cheeks and Jaw

Next you will tense the muscles around your eyes, cheeks and jaw by squinting your eyes very tightly and at the same time puckering your lips and clenching your teeth.  Do not clench your teeth so tightly that it hurts. Begin tensing those muscles NOW. Feel the tension in your face while keeping your forehead relaxed [pause 3 to 5 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Let the tension just melt away and enjoy the comfortable feeling of relaxation that is now spreading from the top of your head to your forehead to your face.  Enjoy the contrast between the tension and the relaxation [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Tense those facial muscles again by tightly squinting your eyes, puckering your lips, and clenching your teeth NOW [pause 3 to 5 seconds]. OKAY, let all that tension go. Completely relax your cheeks, jaw, lips, and eyes. Let your lips part slightly.  Feeling more and more deeply relaxed.  Just let the relaxation happen.  Letting all the muscles of your face become comfortably loose, calm and smooth [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Neck and Shoulders

Next, tense the muscles in your neck and shoulders by raising your shoulders up as high as you can while pulling your neck down into your shoulders. Begin tensing those muscles NOW. Feel that tension in those muscles.  Hold it and study it [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Drop your shoulders back down and feel the relaxation spreading through your neck and shoulders. Just let yourself relax deeper and deeper [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Tense those muscles again by raising your shoulders and sinking your neck NOW [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Just let go more and more. Enjoy the deepening sensation of relaxation. Remember relaxation is simply the absence of tension [pause for 20 to 30 seconds].

Mid-Section

Next, tighten your stomach as if you were bracing for a punch while simultaneously squeezing your buttocks together. Begin tensing those muscles NOW. You should feel a good deal of tightness and tension in just those muscles [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Release all the tension. Just let it all disappear. Just let it happen.  Enjoy the feeling of relaxation that is now spreading into your mid-section [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Tense those muscles again NOW [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Feel the spreading sensation of relaxation. Just letting yourself go more and more.  Feeling more deeply relaxed with every muscle group.  Allow yourself to enjoy the peaceful feeling of relaxation throughout your entire upper body.  Take a moment to take an inventory of all the muscles you’ve relaxed so far.  As you do so, let your mind send messages to any muscles that experience even a little tension, and let yourself enjoy feeling more and more deeply relaxed. [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Right Thigh

This time I want you to turn your attention to your right leg. Tighten the muscles in your right thigh by simultaneously contracting all the muscles of your thigh. Tense those muscles NOW. Try to localize the tension only to your thigh, and note the sensations in your right quadricep and hamstring [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Notice the relaxation sensations that are now beginning to spread downward from your upper body to your right thigh. Just let it happen. Remember relaxation is merely the absence of tension; it takes no effort except merely releasing the tension [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Alright, now let's tighten those same muscles in the right thigh again beginning NOW [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, release the tension. Just passively let it evaporate. Enjoy the feeling of your right thigh relaxing, as if you stretched a rubber band and then released all its tension [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Left Thigh

Next, turn your attention to your left thigh. Tighten the quadriceps and hamstring muscles in your left thigh by simultaneously contracting all those NOW. Notice the sensations of tightness and tension there [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax.  Feel the pleasant, calm, comfortable feeling spreading into your left thigh [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Alright, now let's tighten those same muscles in the left thigh again beginning NOW. Notice the contrast between the tension and the relaxation [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, release all the tension. Just let all the tension go and enjoy the feeling of relaxation.  Feeling more and more relaxed now Deeper and deeper.  Feeling peaceful, calm, and very, very relaxed [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Right Lower Leg

Next, I want you to tense the muscles of your lower right leg by flexing your right ankle as though you are trying to touch your toes to your shin. Begin the tension NOW. Feel the tension in your right calf, shin, ankle and foot. Keep you thigh relaxed [pause for 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Simply release the tension; let go of any remaining tension in your right leg. [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Tense those muscles in your right calf, shin, ankle and foot again NOW [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, release all the tension.  Experience the pleasant sensation of total relaxation in your right leg.  Feeling more and more deeply relaxed, peaceful and calm as we relax every muscle group [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Left Lower Leg

This time you will flex your left ankle backwards, as if you are trying to touch your toes to your shin. Begin the tension NOW. Feel the tension in your left calf, shin, ankle and foot [pause for 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Let go of all the tension.  Notice the relaxation spreading down into your left lower leg [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Tense those muscles in your right calf, shin, ankle and foot again NOW [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, release all the tension.  Feeling very relaxed now.  Just let all the tension run out of your legs, like water going down a drain [pause 20 to 30 seconds]

Feet

Next I want you to tense only the muscles in both feet by pointing the toes of both your feet downward, while keeping your calves and shins relaxed. Tense those muscles NOW. Note the discomfort in the feet [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Feel the spreading sensation of relaxation as you relax deeper and deeper [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Now let’s point your toes of both feet downward again NOW [pause 5 to 7 seconds]. OKAY, relax. Release all the tension. Let go more and more.  Just let yourself relax completely, letting go of all the tension in your body [pause 20 to 30 seconds].

Whole Body

Now I want you to take a brief survey of all the muscles in your body, from your head to your toes.  If you notice any tension in any of the muscles, just let it go, and enjoy the peaceful, comfortable feeling of relaxation. Relax all the muscles of your body. Just let them all go limp. Breathe slowly and deeply. Feeling more and more deeply relaxed with every breath you take. Just let every last trace of tension evaporate from your body.

You may notice a sensation of warmth and heaviness throughout your body, as though you are sinking deeper and deeper into the chair or floor; or, you may feel as though you are as light as air, like you are floating on a cloud. Whatever feelings you have, just go with them. Enjoy the sensation of relaxation. Let yourself relax deeper and deeper.

Before opening your eyes, take several deep breaths and feel the energy and alertness falling back into your body. Wiggle your fingers. Stretch your arms and legs if you wish.  When you are ready, open your eyes and feel alert, awake, refreshed, but still very relaxed.

Quick Relaxation Techniques

Here are two similar techniques that are short enough that they can be used during a competition. It is advisable that you first learn the full PR procedure before you use these abbreviated techaniques.

A quick body scan is a short passive PR technique that can later be incorporated into an athletic performance.  It merely consists of quickly scanning the muscles of the body from head to toe (or the reverse), stopping at muscle groups that are too tense, releasing the tension, and continuing the scan.

A neck and shoulder scan follows the same procedure as the quick body scan, but focuses only on the neck and shoulders.  Athletes can release the tension by rolling their necks around their shoulders.  This can help spread the relaxation to other areas of the body, can relax the mind by giving it a brief break, and is a particularly good tool for cyclists, as unwanted tension frequently builds up in the neck and shoulders.

Learning Techniques to Increase Intensity: Breathing Exercises

While slowing down your breathing can decrease intensity, breathing more rapidly can increase it.

First, focus on breathing rhythmically, and then speed up your breathing rate.  While doing this, imagine that you are inhaling energy and exhaling fatigue.  Sometimes it can be helpful to say “energy in, fatigue out” to yourself as you inhale and exhale.

The combination of narrowed attentional focus, imagery, self-talk and increased breathing rate is a simple, yet effective, way to quickly increase intensity when you need it.

Learning Techniques to Increase Intensity:  Imagery and Cue Words

This is really two techniques, but they are both easy to explain and can often be used together, so I’m presenting them as if they are a single technique.

Think of something that is an energizing image for you.  It may be an animal known for speed, like a cheetah.  It may be the image of a train relentlessly rolling along the track.

You may think of several images, each of which most relevant to a particular kind of situation.  For example, the cheetah image may seem most energizing in a sprint; for me, the train image seems to work best during a long climb.

Next, think of some words or phrases that are energizing for you.  They may be things like “go,” “explode,” or “take off.”  Other words may work better in situations requiring long efforts – I use the word “relentless” along with my train image on climbs on my bike.

Combine these images and cue words to form pairs that you feel would work best when you need an immediate boost in your intensity (short-term intensity cue-word/image pairs) and others that you feel would work best when you need a  more sustained increase in intensity (long-term intensity cue-word/images).

When you need fast energy, like when you need to respond to an attack, you can use your short-term cue-word/image that stimulates explosive energy.  When you are getting fatigued on a long ride and need a more prolonged intense effort, you can use your long-term cue-word/images for more sustained intensity.

What we think has an effect on how we feel, which, in turn, has an effect on what we do.  In sports, negative thinking has been shown to have a negative effect on performance.  When self-talk is negative, it produces both negative feelings, like anxiety, as well as physical tension, which leads to decreased motor coordination and speed.  It also takes your focus away from what you should be doing, which makes it more likely that you will miss something important or make a mistake.  So, when we talk negatively to ourselves, it affects other important mental skills such as intensity regulation, confidence, and concentration.  When these mental skills deteriorate, performance is likely to suffer, which serves to reinforce the self-talk, (e.g., you prove to yourself that, “I really do stink at this”) creating a vicious cycle.

Many times we are unaware of our self-talk; therefore, it can sabotage our performance without our even realizing it.  At its worst, our self-fulfilling prophesies of poor performances in certain situations lead us to label ourselves negatively (e.g., “loser”) which makes it even more difficult to break the negative cycle.

Just as negative self-talk can hurt performance, positive self-talk can improve it.  The key to using self-talk for performance-enhancement is to be able to recognize what you say to yourself so that you can control your self-talk and use it to facilitate performance.  Staying positive in negative situations is the hallmark of a superior athlete.

With practice, athletes can learn to change their self-talk so that they will get the maximum benefit from their successes and learn from their failures without being overly self-critical.  The uses of self-talk are varied – it can be used to improve performance, psych yourself up, cope with anxiety, increase motivation, strengthen confidence, elevate mood, focus your attention, prepare for a competition, break bad habits, and acquire new skills.

Common Problems With Self-Talk (taken from USOC, 2002)

Focusing on the past or future.  For example – “I can’t believe I missed the break!” or “If I’m going to podium I can’t let him pass me.”  All you can control is what you do in the present.

Focusing on mistakes or weaknesses.  For example, “My start sucked.” or “I hope this doesn’t end in a sprint, I suck at sprints.”  Acknowledge areas in need of improvement in practices, but beating yourself up, especially in competitions, will erode your confidence.

Focusing only on outcomes.  For example, “I have to win” or “I have to beat her.”  You can only control your own performance, not the performance of others.  Concentrate on what you can do.

Focusing on things out of your control.  For example, “I hate racing in the rain.” or “Why did he have to show up – now I’ll never win.”  This takes your mind off of what you can do to improve your performance.

Demanding perfection from yourself.  For example, “I must win.” or “I have to pass this guy in the next mile.”  This can set you up for frustration.

Self-Talk Assessment

To rate your own use of self-talk, rate the following questions on a scale of  0=Never, 1=Sometimes, 2=Almost Always (taken from USOC, 2002):

_____Before competition, I purposely tell myself what to do and how to focus.

_____I am able to focus on what I am doing instead of the outcome.

_____While competing, I am my own best friend (e.g., supportive, encouraging, positive).

_____I know what to say to myself to “get over” a mistake.

_____I have specific things I say to myself to stay focused.

_____I have specific things I say to myself to stay motivated during practice.

_____I know how to talk to myself to perform my best.

_____I focus on my strengths, not my weaknesses, prior to and during competitions.

_____ TOTAL

Scoring:  11-16 excellent, 6-10 good, 0-5 need improvement.

Other Self-Talk Assessment Techniques

Before you can change your self-talk, you have to know what it is.  There are several ways to become more aware of self-talk and each have their own advantages and disadvantages.

The “Paper Clip” Technique – Take a pocketful of paper clips and put them in your left pants pocket when you get dressed in the morning.  Each time you have a negative thought during the day, take one out and put it in your right pants pocket.  When you get undressed at night, count the paperclips in you right pocket.  Repeat this exercise for four or five days.  This is a quick and simple technique that can help you discover the extent of your negative thinking, although it doesn’t provide you will any details of the content of your thoughts.

Recall Through Imagery – Take a deep breath, close your eyes, slowly exhale and relax.  Imagine an especially good competition.  Imagine it as vividly as possible, that is,  what it looked like, how it felt, and what you were thinking.  As you relive this experience in your head, become aware of your self-talk.  Take several minutes to do this, then open your eyes and write down what you were thinking and what was going with you and around you at that time.  Repeat this exercise, but now imagine one of your worst performances.  For even more detail, try recalling two or three best and worst performances, and then compare your self-talk.  This technique can be done rather quickly and has the advantage of focusing on particular performances, although it does presume you are competent at imagery.

Self-Talk Log – In your training log, make a page with four columns with the headings “Positive,” “Negative,” “Distracting,” and “Situation.”  As soon as possible after training or competitions, write down the date, where you were, and whether it was training or a competition.  Write down what you said to yourself under the appropriate columns.  Next to each thought, in the “Situation” column, write down what you were doing and what was going on around you at the time.  Pay special attention to when you are performing well or performing poorly to see if your thoughts differ at these times.  Journaling is probably one of the most comprehensive and accurate ways to assess self-talk, but it does take a good deal of preparation and time to complete.

The Two-Minute Journal – To make the process of journaling easier, use the Two-Minute Journal's Self-Talk Rating Scales.  This journal is designed to provide practical, quantitative information that can be used to track your progress in acquiring mental skills.  Each part of the journal focuses on a different mental skill.  In this journal, there is space provided for you to write as much information as you wish, but the essential ratings can be completed in two minutes or less.

Using Video and Audio – Using video tapes and audio recordings can augment many of the above assessment procedures.  For example, replaying a video of an athlete’s performance can help in the recall of self-talk at specific moments.  This can assist in recalling self-talk with imagery or in completing a self-talk log.  Using a small digital recorder and external microphone, athletes in some sports could talk out loud during training, a simulated race, or even a competition to record their self-talk “live.”  If you are a cyclist and have a power meter, you could even have the potential of seeing how your thinking affected your wattage!  That way you might prove the adage, “Watts you think is watts you get!”

Taking Charge Of Your Thinking

After you have assessed your self-talk in various situations and developed an understanding of the connection among your thoughts, feelings and behavior, the next step is to take charge of your thinking and use it to maximize your performance.  Research has shown that the best athletes are able to stop their negative thinking and quickly change it to more positive and productive thoughts without beating themselves up.  Two of the most common and easily learned methods to help you take control of your thoughts are thought stopping and thought replacement.

Thought Stopping – This procedure involves three steps: (1) Identify the Thought.  The first step in changing negative thinking is to become familiar with what you say to yourself so you can recognize it quickly.  After you’ve assessed your self-talk you should be able to recognize it when it starts and even anticipate it as you get into situations that typically bring it on.  When bad things happen it’s normal to have some feelings about it, so it’s OK to have a negative thought or two.  In fact, discharging some of the negative feeling is important to help you move on.  What you want to do is prevent yourself from spiraling down into a black hole of negative self-talk.  To do this, you must first stop the negative thoughts.  (2) Stop the Thought – Think of a signal that will tell you to stop. For example, picture of a stop sign, imagine yourself or your coach yelling “STOP!,” imaging hearing a buzzer or shake your head “NO.”  Choose any stop signal that works best for you.  Every time you notice yourself having a negative thought, immediately use your stop signal.   (3) Practice.  To become effective, you must practice this technique over time.  As a way to begin, try imagining yourself in a situation that typically produces negative thoughts and rehearse thought stopping in your imagination.  Continue doing this over time until the process becomes automatic.  If you have a verbal stop signal, it’s best to say it out loud at first.  This will make you more conscious of stopping the negative thinking.  Remember that old thoughts, like old habits, die hard.  Don’t become discouraged if your negative thoughts take time to stop.  If you get to the point where you are beating yourself up for beating yourself up, it will only make the situation worse.  The best attitude to take is to be supportive of yourself and treat yourself like you would treat a teammate struggling with their self-talk.

Thought Replacement – A stop signal is necessary to stop negative thinking, but insufficient to keep it from coming back.  At times telling yourself not to think something can backfire - it’s like trying not to think of a white rhinoceros.  Therefore, after stopping the negative thoughts, you need to replace them with thoughts that are more productive.  Think of alternative thoughts that are both more positive and realistic.  For example, what might you say to a teammate?  What might your coach say to you?   To help with this, use the list of negative thoughts you created during the assessment phase.  Next to each one, write down at least one positive and realistic alternative thought. For example, if you thought, “I suck at time-trialing.”  You could replace the thought with, “I’ve improved in many areas through hard work.  If I stick with it, I’ll improve this skill too.” Replacing negative thoughts with positive ones will help you stay motivated and refocus your attention to what you need to do right now that you can control.  Finally, since negative thinking can produce anxiety and physical tension, it can be helpful to use a quick relaxation technique (like diaphragmatic breathing) between stopping the thought and replacing it.

Making Positive Self-Talk Even More Positive

Mikes (1987) suggested six rules for self-talk for improved performance:

Keep your phrases short and specific

Use the first person and present tense

Construct positive phrases

Say your phrases with meaning and attention

Speak kindly to yourself

Repeat phrases often

Other research has shown that incorporating personally-meaningful metaphors into your self-talk (e.g., “Strong as a bull.” or “Sprint like a cheetah.”) can be especially effective in enhancing performance (Hanin and Strambulova, 2002).

Practice Make Perfect

As with any mental or physical skill, practice is required.  Use the following as a guide to incorporate self-talk into your sport. First try the technique out in imagery.  Practice using the technique successfully in situations that typically produce negative thinking.  Strive to master the technique so that is can be used without thinking or hesitation.  The goal is to make it automatic. Next, try the technique out in practices.  For example, if you tend to think negatively before and during a hard climb, practice the technique in these situations in training.  Do it several times in several different situations that you’ve found lead to negative thinking in the past. Next, practice the technique in simulated competitions, like during group training. Finally, incorporate the technique in a competition.  You may wish to try it first in a “B-competition,” that is, a competition that is less important, so that you can evaluate the effectiveness of the technique and make any changes necessary before using it in an important event.

Goal-setting can be an important part of any athlete’s training plan, whether their goal is to improve their physical skills, mental skills, or just get more enjoyment out of their sport.  Setting goals can help athletes focus on what’s most important, increase their effort and motivation to stick with their plan, consider new strategies regarding how to accomplish their goals and help them track their progress.  As anyone who has ever set a New Year’s resolution knows, however, setting goals is easy; reaching goals is tough. That’s why, for example, research shows that about 50% of people who begin an exercise program discontinue it within six months

Problems With Goal-Setting

There are at least three problems that make effective goal-setting difficult for athletes. First, goal-setting isn’t very exciting. Most athletes are eager to learn mental skills that are seen as more interesting, like imagery training, for instance. Unfortunately, goal-setting has gotten a bad reputation as being too simple to be of any help and too boring to spend time doing. Second, many people think goal-setting procedures take too much time. They may feel that they have such limited time that it would be better to spent the time practicing their sport. Third, and perhaps most importantly, few athletes know how to set the right kind of goals. Many well-intentioned people mistakenly set outcome goals (more about this later).  Because they don’t know how to set effective goals, they end up abandoning them in frustration after a short time.  Let’s take a look at these problems more closely and outline some strategies for how to deal with them.

Problem 1 – Goal-Setting Is Considered Boring. The best defense against this problem is to emphasize how effective goal-setting is. The vast majority of research done on goal-setting in sport and business settings show that it has a dramatic effect on performance. Research done specifically on goal-setting and athletic performance also shows a significant effect. In fact, I would go as far as to say that creating an effective goal-setting plan may give you the biggest performance bang for your buck of any mental skills technique. In addition, most elite athletes see goal-setting as an important part of their performance-enhancement plan. For example, a survey of over 300 Olympic athletes found that every one of them practiced some type of goal setting to help enhance performance. These athletes also found their goal-setting plans to be highly effective in enhancing their performance. Additionally, a survey of 44 sport psychology consultants who work with Olympic athletes indicated that goal-setting was their most frequently used intervention strategy. The bottom line here is this: Goal-setting may not be terribly exciting, but it is, without a doubt, terribly effective.

Problem 2 – Goal-Setting Takes Too Much Time. Setting goals does take some time, at least in the beginning.  Once you’ve put in the initial investment, however, goal-setting pays off and actually saves you time because it helps you stay focused and motivated.  It’s often tough to find enough time to train. If you have set effective goals, your time will be spent more efficiently because you will spent your training time involved in the kinds of activities that will be most helpful to you to attain your goals.  The time it takes to set effective goals is more than made up for by the efficiency they will bring to your training program.

Problem 3 – Athletes Frequently Set the Wrong Kinds of Goals. One of the most common mistakes in goal-setting is creating too many goals about how you perform compare to others.  Attaining goals like winning a competition or beating a rival depend, not only on your performance, but also on the performance of others.  Goals that depend on how you compare to others are called outcome goals.  Outcome goals can be motivating, but relying solely on them can make it difficult for you to get motivated in the short-term, especially if your outcome goal is so far in the future that it doesn’t create the sense of urgency that can help you get up early on a cold winter morning to train.  Relying solely on outcome goals, (for example, finishing first in an important competition), can also leave you frustrated if another competitor happens to have the competition of their life in the same competition you wanted to win.

Setting Performance and Process Goals

Instead of relying on just outcome goals, set goals for your personal performance independent of others.  Obtaining a personal best in a particular race, making 20 consecutive serves, or making 80% of your foul shots are examples of performance goals.  Performance goals are helpful because they focus you on what you need to accomplish to compete at your peak and reach the outcome goals that are most important for you.

Additionally, set goals for what you have to do during a race to perform your best.  Improving the efficiency of your stroke by 10%, increasing your VO_2max by 5ml/kg/min, or increasing your bench press weight by 5% are examples of process goals.  Think of process goals as the specific things you need to do to reach your performance and outcome goals. Setting a combination of outcome, performance, and process goals will help you stay focused, increase your motivation, and help you structure your training.

Other Effective Goal-Setting Practices

In addition to setting a combination of outcome, progress and process goals, here are some other tips to help you create effective goals that will help you enhance your performance:

Create specific, measurable goals (see “SMART” goals below)

Set both long- and short-term goals

Set positive, not negative, goals (what you will do, not what you won’t do)

Make goals moderately difficult

Create target dates to achieve goals (think of what you want within the next two weeks)

Create goals for both training and competitions

Create strategies to achieve goals (what do you need to do to get up on that cold morning?)

Write down your goals (this one is very important!)

Share goals publicly to obtain support from others

Track goal progress and being flexible in changing goals, if needed

Use Your “SMARTS”

Time-management consultant Hyrum W. Smith created this acronym to help people remember some of the most important aspects of effective goal-setting.  Keep these things in mind as you create each of your goals:

S = Specific – Run faster is too vague.  Finishing a 10K in less than 45 minutes is specific.

M = Measurable – Quantify goals.  Use numbers detailing how often, how many, how much.

A = Action-Oriented – Goals should imply actions that you need to take.

R = Realistic – Make your goals moderately difficult, but reachable.

T = Timely – Create goals that you can reach in a reasonable time.

S = Self-Determined – Set your own goals, ones that are meaningful to you.

The Process of Effective Goal-Setting

This 10,924 foot high mountain, frequently climbed by cyclists racing the Tour de France, has twenty-one switchbacks, and each one has a sign counting them down to the top.  When riders climb Alpe d’Huez, passing each sign is an indication that they have reached another sub-goal on the way to their ultimate goal.

Keeping the image of Alpe d’Huez in mind is a good way to think about how to map the road to your ultimate sports goal of the year.  Here’s what you can do:  Take a pad of paper and draw a mountain on the top half of the page (if you’re not a nature-lover, use the “Goal-Setting Worksheet” at the end of this handout – it works just as well).  At the top of the mountain write the goal you wish to achieve for this year – your ultimate goal, like winning a State championship.  Make the goal moderately difficult, but attainable.  You should be 60% to 80% sure that you can reach this goal if you practice hard.  After this, write some short-term goals that you need to reach on your climb toward your ultimate goal.  These might include some of the performance and process goals described above, like losing 10 pounds, making 85% of your serves, or attending every group practice session.  Structure these sub-goals so that most of them can be reached in about 2 to 4 weeks each.  After this, write these sub-goals next to a switchback of the mountain, and draw a road up through every switchback to your ultimate goal at the summit. 

The next step in crucial.  Underneath your mountain, write down each sub-goal on the left side of the page.  Next to each sub-goal list what strategies you will use to attain each one.  For example, if one of your sub-goals is to improve your 100 meter free style swim by 5 seconds, a strategy to attain this goal might be to practice short intervals in the pool three times a week.  Remember to make them specific and measurable.  You can also have goals to improve your mental skills. If one of your sub-goals is to increase your confidence, you could use the strategies of practicing imagery and thought-control techniques during your warm-ups and training.

After you’ve listed your strategies for reaching each sub-goal, hang your masterpiece on the refrigerator where you will see it every day.  Publicly displaying your goals will help keep you focused, enlist the support of your family or roommates, and might even keep you away from those late-night raids of the refrigerator.

Goal-setting works best when you focus on one goal at a time.  Many people get bogged down by working on too many goals at once.  Also, remember to be flexible.  Sometimes goals need to be modified, especially if you’re new at goal-setting.  Changing goals is not a sign of failure; it merely helps you become more specific about what you need to do now, considering information you didn’t have at the time you originally set your goals.

Follow these principles of effective goal-setting and you won’t become one of those people who just sets goals this year – you’ll be one of the few people who reach them!

Many athletes can recall a time during training or a competition in which they felt “in the zone,” like they could do no wrong, like everything was easy and automatic.  Frequently, these same athletes can recall a time close to this performance when they felt just the opposite; that is, they felt unmotivated, lethargic, bored, fatigued and like everything was difficult.  What accounts for these differences?  It is unreasonable to think that fitness level or technical skills changed in such a short period of time.  It is more likely that mental factors account for these performance differences.  The closer athletes get to their ideal mental state for peak performance, the more likely it is that their sports performance will improve.

Does Your Mental State Relate To Your Performance?

To begin to understand how your mental state is related to your sport performance, try this exercise: Recall one of you best performances. Take five minutes to imagine this time as vividly as possible. Try to recall the energy level, anxiety level, physical tension, direction and breadth of your attentional focus, self-talk, degree of confidence, and so forth that you had during this best performance. After you have a clear idea of what your mental state was during this performance, complete the “Self-Awareness Rating Scales” of the Two-Minute Journal.

Next, recall one of your worst performances. Again, take five minutes to imagine this as vividly as you can.  Try to recall your energy level, anxiety level, physical tension, direction and breadth of your attentional focus, self-talk, degree of confidence, and so forth during this worst performance. After you have a clear idea of what your mental state was during this performance, complete the “Self-Awareness Rating Scales” of the Two-Minute Journal.

Compare your responses between these two performances.  The ratings that have the largest differences will give you clues as to the most important factors for you to focus on in determining your peak mental state.  This, in turn, will help you decide what mental skills should be focused on first.  In this way, increasing self-awareness is the key to self-control.

A Zone For Every Athlete…

Although the characteristics of this “zone” vary from person to person, research done by Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi indicate that many athletes describe a similar subjective state when they have a peak performance. This state, called “flow” is thought to be the psychological precursor of the mental state required for peak performance.  That is, while not all athletes experiencing flow have a peak performance, it may be that all athletes having a peak performance are in flow.  There are typically nine characteristics of flow that have been described:

Challenge-skills balance – feeling you are being challenged but you have the skills to succeed

Action and awareness merging – a feeling of being “one” with your actions

Clear goals – a well-defined idea of what you need to do to succeed

Unambiguous feedback – you know clearly how you are doing and what you need to do

Total concentration – complete focus only on the task at hand

Total control – a sense of being able to do anything without feeling like you have to try

Lack of self-consciousness – no worries, concerns, fear of failure or self-doubt

Time distortion – a feeling that time speeds up or, more often, slows down

The “autotelic” experience – the experience was so enjoyable it was its own reward

Of these nine characteristics, the merging of action and awareness, total concentration, total control and the autotelic experience are the ones most salient by athletes who experience flow. Notice that these characteristics imply the use of several different mental training skills – e.g., concentration, goal-setting, thought control and motivation.

…And For Every Athlete, A Zone

The work on flow has attempted to identify the characteristics experienced by all athletes during peak performances; another line of research has taken an individualized approach. The idea is that everyone has an ideal performance state, but the characteristics of this zone differ from one athlete to the next.  The trick is to find out what level of what characteristics puts you in your “IZOF,” that is, you “Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning.”  This research, led by Yuri Hanin and his colleagues, focuses on the emotional states of athletes and their relation to sport performance.  Specifically, the IZOF model requires athletes to rate the intensity with which they experience a set of positive and negative emotions during different performances and determine the emotions that have the most impact on their performances.  These emotions are categorized into four different types:

Helpful-Positive Emotions (P+) – emotions that are experienced as positive and aid sport performance (e.g., energetic, confident, motivated)

Helpful-Negative Emotions (N+) – emotions that are experienced as negative and aid sport performance (e.g., angry, fierce, jittery)

Harmful-Positive Emotions (P-) – emotions that are experienced as positive but hurt sport performance (e.g., quite, contented, lighthearted)

Harmful Negative Emotions (N-) – emotions that are experienced as negative but hurt sport performance (e.g., afraid, depressed, lazy)

Although the process of constructing an IZOF is rather involved, the main idea here is that by gaining greater self-awareness into your ideal performance state is the first step in self-regulation, which is the ultimate goal of mental skills training.

To Think Or Not to Think

Many athletes report that when they feel in the zone they aren’t aware of having any conscious thoughts. After all, some of the most notable characteristics of flow have to do with the merging of action and awareness and of effortlessness.  Consequently, some athletes are reluctant to think about how they are feeling and what they are thinking while they perform. They are afraid that thinking about it too much will ruin the experience. 

It’s true that one can get too caught up in thoughts, and instead of being a vehicle towards self-awareness, they become a distraction. To avoid this “paralysis by analysis” it is important to recognize when you are functioning optimally and when you are not.  Strive to “check in” with yourself periodically to assess your physical and mental state.  If you are doing well, there is no need to think anymore; just keep doing what you’re doing. If, on the other hand, your performance state is less than optimal (which is the more common state of affairs), then further scrutiny can help you determine what is off kilter, and what needs to be done about it.

A useful strategy for this “checking in” process is Ravizza and Hanson’s “Traffic Light analogy.”  A traffic signal has three lights: A green light demands no attention; you simply keep on driving without thinking about it.  A yellow light demands that you observe the situation in more detail and determine what, if any, action needs to take place.  A red light demands that you stop immediately.  As you drive, you need to periodically check the traffic lights to see what you need to do next. Similarly, athletes need to periodically check their mental state to see what (if anything) they need to do to perform better.  If they give themselves the green light, there is no need to think about what they are doing, they just need to continue doing it.  If they give themselves a yellow light, they need to determine if they need to take some action, like relaxing more, or changing their self-talk.  If they give themselves a red light, they must take more drastic action or they will need to stop.

Make “checking in” a B.A.S.I.C. skill

When you’re training hard or competing it’s difficult to remember what conditions you need to focus on during these “check-ins,” especially in the beginning. To help you remember what to check, as well as to remind yourself that these check-ins are a “BASIC” mental skills technique, use the word “basic” as a mnemonic device.  Each letter stands for a condition you need to check:

B – Body.  Check your technique, posture, and muscle tension.

A – Arousal.  Check your anxiety and energy level.

S – Self-Talk.  Check what + or – things you are saying to yourself.

I – Imagery.  Check what sort of imagery you are using.

C – Concentration.  Check how focused you are on your ride. 

Begin practicing these BASIC check-ins during your easy training days, like your active recovery days, when the intensity of the efforts will not require your total focus.  Once you become more accustomed to checking in, try using them in harder training efforts, then in simulated competitions, and finally, when checking in becomes automatic, try them in your competitions.

Keeping  A Sports Journal

There are several ways to help you improve your self-awareness of peak performance states.  One of the best ways is to keep a sport journal.  Keeping a sport journal provides a structured way to catalog your thoughts and feelings during training and competition and thereby increase your self-awareness of your peak performance states. Using one will increase your awareness of the association between various mental states and athletic performance.  In addition, after learning mental skills training techniques to control your mental state, you can use the journal to assess the effectiveness of these techniques.

Ideally, a sport journal should be easy to use.  There is only one good type of journal – the one that gets used. The Two-Minute Journal was designed to be easy to use, quantifiable and to reflect the most up to date scientific understanding of mental skills training.  As its name implies, it was also designed to complete quickly – literally in two minutes. 

If you prefer, however, you can create your own journal.  If you do, I recommend that you include a variety of information to describe your performance, your associated mental states, and any intervention strategies designed to control these mental states.  Consider including the following information:

Date

Type of activity (training or competition)

Goal(s) for the activity

Stress level and distractedness

Current mood (e.g., on a 1 – 10 scale of poor to great)

Level of motivation before activity

Pre-activity heart rate (optional, but a good physiological measure of arousal)

Thoughts and feelings before, during and after the activity

Mental skills strategies employed and their perceived effectiveness

Performance rating (how well you think you did in your physical performance)

Ideas/comments/observations (e.g., what you have learned from this, what to do next time)

Save Yourself Some Time

A major challenge to incorporating mental skills into a training regime is to find that time to do it.  One of the best and easiest ways to increase your self-awareness in a time-efficient way is to become more mindful of your physical and mental state during your training sessions.  This way, you can increase your self-awareness without adding much time to your training.  For example, consider doing the following:

Use your warm-up time to focus on your physical and mental state.

Use cross-training days to pay attention to your thoughts, feelings, muscle tension, breathing, and so forth.

Use the time when you stretch after training to focus on the physical sensations of your muscles and the quieting of your mind and body.

Pay special attention to the physical sensations you have during drills, interval work, and so forth.

During rest periods between higher intensity interval training, close your eyes and take an inventory of your physical and mental state (get a partner or ride a stationary bike, trainer, etc.).